Relationship between Theory and Practice Essay Example for Free

Relationship between Theory and Practice Essay Cognitive development indicates growth of the ability to reflect and explain. Lev Semionovich Vygotsky and Jean Piaget were greatly contributed to the cognitive development section of Psychology. The way small kids discover surrounding environment and psychologically develop plays a key role in their learning processes and skills. By learning the process of cognitive development supervisors give themselves a chance to great extent meet the requirements of the individual demands of each separate child. Vygotsky and Piaget were considered to be constructivists. Constructivism is a method of training and learning based on the idea that cognition is the consequence of psychological construction. To put it differently, children obtain knowledge making compatible their previous experience and new fresh information. Constructivists believe that learning is influenced by the situation in which a concept is delivered also by childrens attitudes and values. Another common feature between Vygotsky and Piaget is that they both think that the limits of cognitive development were set by societal influences. Unfortunately, this is the point where the correspondence between Vygotsky and Piaget comes to an end. There is a great difference between both theories of highly indicated scientists. Piaget claimed that mental growth came from activity. He believed that students learn by means of communicating with their surroundings and that learning takes place after growth. On the other hand, Vygotsky held that knowledge takes place prior to the growth that can occur and that children learn because of history and symbolism. Vygotsky also claimed that students appreciate effort from their surrounding environment and from other people such as teachers and parents as well. Piaget did not consider the latter to be true. Vygotskys and Piaget concepts on cognitive development also have different attitudes. School systems and teachers have been practicing the cognitive development theories of Vygotsky and Piaget for quite a while. A good illustration of Piagentian training could be arranged in a preschool environment. Through the preschool period Piaget considers students as being at the Preoperational level and as a consequence they are more likely to be self-centered. Consequently, it would be fair to discuss things with preschool age children from their own points of view as they will feel their experiences are unique and precious. During classroom activities one student might say the glass of milk that another student brought to classroom to share is half empty while the student who brought the glass may consider the glass to be half full. Neither student is wrong in this example, the glass can be characterized by both descriptions but they may believe it due to the fact that each accordingly likes or dislikes milk. Application of Vygotskys cognitive development theory could occur in a first grade classroom. First grade children are frequently characterized by having varying stages of knowledge. Some students may already know letters and how to read while others are still making attempt to improve this process. An optimal option to assist the students who are not reading as well as the others includes ensuring these children aid speaking out a word when they get stuck while reading a text. With these preliminary considerations in mind it would be well to conclude that cognitive development plays a central part in learning and thinking approaches of students. Vygotsky and Piaget provide valuable knowledge and data into the possible ways students learn and by employing these concepts it is possible to design a more advantageous learning context for each student. To get deeper understanding of Vygotsky’s theory it would be useful to visit the web-site http://www. newfoundations. com/gallery/Vygotsky. html. It suggests a number of approaches provided by in-depth studies and research of the scientist. Vygotsky tries to find answers to questions such as â€Å"What is a human being? †, â€Å"What is knowledge? †, â€Å"What is learning? †, â€Å"What is society? †, or â€Å"Who is to be educated? †. One more web resource that provides valuable insight into the researches conducted by Piaget is http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/piaget. html. To apply theory into practice we may observe that preoperational stage includes symbolism which means that the child already understands parallel notions of objects. For instance, to develop business skills from the early age it would be very useful to set an activity where objects replace real things: paper instead of money, books instead of TV-sets to be sold, etc. These two particular web-sites were chosen because besides the theory itself they also include practice and illustrations. They describe how the results of the studies may be applied in learning and teaching processes.

DNA Fingerprinting for Identification of Plant Species

DNA Fingerprinting for Identification of Plant Species ABSTRACT Conservation of plant resources prevents the loss of valuable plant species in the past centuries. Many species like that of wild Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius , Japonica are endangered and requires restoration. Its adverse impact on environmental and socioeconomic values has triggered the studies on plant diversity. It is seen that appropriate identification and characterization of plant materials is essential for the conservation of plant resources and to ensure their sustainable use. Molecular tools developed in the past few years provide easy, less laborious means for assigning known and unknown plant taxa. These techniques answer many new evolutionary and taxonomic questions, which were not previously possible with only phenotypic methods. Various techniques such as DNA bar coding, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), microsatellites, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) have recently been used for plant diversity studi es. Sequencing based molecular techniques provide better resolution at intra-genus. Whereas data from markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and microsatellites provide the means to classify individual medicine. In addition DNA methods are reliable approaches towards authentication of Chinese medicinal materials. For future reference, it is necessary to compile library of Chinese medicines which include genetic information, especially for endangered species and those with high market value and or with possible poisonous adulterants which can affect quality of medicine. INTRODUCTION For the sustainable development and for improvement and maintenance of agricultural and forestry production there is a use for conservation of plant genetic resources. The objective of plant genetic resources conservation is to preserve as broad a sample of the extant genetic diversity of target species as is scientifically and economically feasible, including currently recognized genes, traits and genotypes [1]. Genetic diversity finds its natural resources in wild species for which it is important to find out the amount of genetic variability by the way of morphological, biochemical and molecular markers, besides some interesting physiological turns. Characterization of diversity is based on morphological traits. However, it is seen that morphological variability is often restricted, characters may not be obvious at all stages of the plant development. Identification plays a very important role in diversity studies. Accurate classification of individuals is essential for evaluation of species diversity. The identification of taxonomic units and endangered species, whose genetic constitution is distinct from their more abundant relatives, is important in the development of appropriate conservation strategies Nowadays, a variety of different genetic markers has been proposed to assess genetic variability. Molecular tools provide valuable data on diversity through their ability to detect variation at the DNA level CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES: Effective conservation of plant genetic resources requires a complementary approach which makes use of both ex situ and in situ conservation methods to maximize the genetic diversity available for use. ex situ conservation: The objective of ex situ conservation is to maintain the accessions without change in their genetic constitution [1]. The methods that are designed are such that can be used to minimize the possibility of mutation, random genetic drift, selection or contamination. It is seen that storing of seeds at low temperatures and humidities can bring long term ex situ conservation. But there are many clonally propagated species, such as banana and potato, cannot be conserved in this way, and many species, particularly tropical forest tree species, produce seeds that are recalcitrant and cannot be stored. These species can only be maintained ex situ in field gene banks as growing collections of plants, or in vitro using tissue culture or cryopreservation [2]. In situ conservation: In situ conservation is considered to be the method of choice for conserving forest species and wild crop relatives and there is increasing interest in the use of in situ conservation for crops themselves (on-farm conservation) [3]. In situ conservation allows evolution to continue, increases the amount of diversity that can be conserved, and strengthens links between conservation workers and the communities who have traditionally maintained and used the resources. All genetic resources conservation activities require characterization of the diversity present in both the gene pools and the gene banks. Molecular genetics has an important role to play in many aspects of conservation such as characterizing plant genetic diversity for purposes of improved acquisition, maintenance and use. A number of different techniques are available for identifying genetic differences between organisms. The choice of technique for any one specific use will depend upon the material being studied and the nature of the questions being addressed. Protein polymorphisms were the first markers used for genetic studies. However, the number of polymorphic loci that can be assayed, and the level of polymorphisms observed at the loci are often low, which greatly limits their application in genetic diversity studies. With the development of new technologies, DNA polymorphisms have become the markers of choice for molecularâ‚ ¬Ã‚ based surveys of genetic variation. DNA ma rkers are useful in both basic (e.g. phylogenetic analysis and search for useful genes) and applied research (e.g. marker assisted selection, paternity testing and food traceability). A number of markers are now available to detect polymorphisms in nuclear DNA [4]. Properties desirable for ideal DNA markers include highly polymorphic nature, co dominant, frequent occurrence in the genome, selective neutral behavior, easy access, easy and fast assay and high reproducibility [5]. NEED FOR GENETIC RESOLUION: It is a duty of Gene bank managers and conservationists concerned with both in situ and ex situ management to conserve as much as possible the extinct genetic diversity of the species with which they work. The effectiveness with which they do this depends to a large extent on the genetic information available on the germplasm with which they work. Molecular markers provide genetic information of direct value in key areas of conservation both ex situ and in situ. For ex situ conservation the key issues are: Acquisition: Data on the diversity of existing collections can be used to plan collection and exchange strategies. In particular, calculations of genetic distances based on molecular data can be used to identify particular divergent subpopulations that might harbour valuable genetic variation that is under-represented in current holdings Maintenance: Genetic data are essential to identify duplicate accessions in order to ensure best use of available resources. Genetic markers are also needed to monitor changes in genetic structure as accessions are generated. Molecular markers provide markers suitable for both of these. Characterization: The genetic diversity within collections must be assessed in the context of the total available genetic diversity for each species. Existing passport data document the geographic location where each accession was acquired. However, passport records are often missing or incorrect. Molecular markers may extend and complement characterization based on morphological or biochemical descriptions, providing more accurate and detailed information than classical phenotypic data. Distribution to users: Users of collections benefit from genetic information that allows them to identify valuable traits and types quickly. On a more fundamental level, molecular marker information may lead to the further identification of useful genes contained in collections. Molecular data on diversity may provide essential information to develop core collections [6] that accurately represent the entire collection. Molecular markers may therefore be used in four types of measurements needed for effective ex situ conservation, all of which are useful in resolving the numerous operational, logistical, and biological questions that face gene banks managers [7]. These are: identity: the determination of whether an accession or individual is catalogued correctly, is true to type, maintained properly, and whether genetic change or erosion has occurred in an accession or population over time; Similarity: the degree of similarity among individuals in an accession or between accessions within a collection. Structure: the partitioning of variation among individuals, accessions, populations, and species. Genetic structure is influenced by in situ demographic factors such as population size, reproductive biology and migration. Detection: the presence of particular allele or nucleotide sequence in a taxon, gene bank accession, in situ population, individual, chromosome or cloned DNA segment. Those concerned with in situ conservation need to ensure that appropriate populations are identified and managed in such a way that they survive and continue to evolve. Their responsibilities can include: Location: the identification of populations which should be conserved based on the genetic diversity present as well as on the value of the resource and the threats to it. Crucial to this is knowledge of the extent and distribution of genetic diversity in species populations which should optimally include molecular data. Management: the development of management plans to monitor the changes in target populations over time and ensure their continued survival. The populations maintained in situ constitute part of ecosystems and both intra- and interspecific diversity must be maintained over time at appropriate levels. Accessibility: in situ conservation is most commonly of interest in forest genetic resources conservation and that of wild crop relatives but it is also of increasing interest for on-farm conservation of traditional cultivars. Genetic resources conserved in this way remain accessible to the communities who depend on them. Managers need to ensure they are also accessible to other users and that sufficient genetic information is available to assist such users. Within the context of in situ conservation, therefore, identity, similarity, structure and detection are also important and can be usefully investigated using molecular techniques BASIC GENETIC TOOLS DNA sequencing: DNA sequencing is the determination of the precise sequence of nucleotides in a sample of DNA. The nucleotides bases are A (adenine), G (guanine), C (cytosine) and T (thymine) The conventional and next generation sequencing techniques are thus been explained in detail. Conventional Sequencing Technique- Now days it is seen that dye-terminator sequencing technique is the standard method in automated sequencing analysis [8]. And for majority of sequencing the dye-terminator sequencing method, along with automated high-throughput DNA sequence analyzers, is used. Dye-terminator sequencing  utilizes labelling of the chain terminator dents, which permits sequencing in a single reaction, rather than four reactions as in the labelled-primer method. In dye-terminator sequencing, each of the four di de-oxynucleotide chain terminators is labelled with fluorescent dyes, each of which emit light at different wavelengths. Owing to its greater expediency and speed, dye-terminator sequencing is now the mainstay in automated sequencing. The main advantages of this technique are its robustness, automation and high accuracy Its limitations include dye effects due to differences in the incorporation of the dye-labelled chain terminators into the DNA fragment, resulting in unequal peak heights and shapes in the electronic DNA sequence trace  chromatogram  after  capillary electrophoresis  . This problem has been addressed with the use of modified DNA polymerase enzyme systems and dyes that minimize incorporation variability, as well as methods for e liminating dye blobs. DNA barcoding of plants has now gained the interest of scientists with the aim to identify an unknown plant in terms of a known classification. DNA barcoding is a technique for characterizing species of organisms using a short DNA sequence from a standard. DNA barcode sequences are thus shorter than the entire genome and can be obtained quickly [9]. Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) was used for species-level assignment of plants and individual barcodes were obtained with matK (99%), followed by trnH-psbA (95%) and then rbcL (75%) [10]. Recently, a group of plant DNA barcode researchers proposed two chloroplast genes, rbcL and matK, taken together, as appropriate for bar-coding of plants [11]. Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is the basis of Molecular phylogenies in plants but the problems due to gene flow of cpDNA among closely related taxa, as well as the lack of phylogenetic resolution, triggered the development of new approaches based on nuclear DNA [13]. The most common alternative corresponds to the sequencing of the ITS (internal transcribed spacer) of 18S-25S nuclear ribosomal DNA [14, 15]. The failure of both cpDNA and ITS techniques to sequence, the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) approach has the potential to solve such difficulties, particularly among closely related species, or at the intra-specific level [16-18]. Therefore, integration of recently developed bar-coding with the following techniques such as RAPD, AFLP, microsatellite and SNP seems to provide better resolution. Next Generation Sequencing Techniques Next generation platforms do not rely on Sanger chemistry [19] as did the first generation machines used for the last 30 years. The first of this kind of 2nd generation of sequencing technique appeared in 2005 that was based on pyrosequencing [20, 21] Commercial 2nd generation sequencing methods can be distinguished by the role of PCR in library preparation. There are four main platforms; all being amplification-based: (i) Roche 454 GS FLX, (ii) Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx, (iii) ABI SOLiD 3 Plus System and (iv) Polonator G.007 [22] The single-molecule sequencing method (also known as 3rd generation or next-next generation) is independent of PCR [25,30]. This mode of sequencing protocol was recently developed by Helicos Genetic Analysis System using the technology developed by Braslavsky et al. [23]. Other 3rd generation sequencing systems are being developed by Life Technologies and Pacific Biosciences SMRT technology and may appear within one to two years. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) The invention of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a milestone in the development of molecular techniques. PCR results in the selective amplification of a chosen region of a DNA molecule. Random amplification of DNA with short primer by PCR is a useful technique in phylogenetics. The important point is the banding pattern seen, when the products of PCR with random primers are electrophoresed in a reflection of the overall structure of the DNA molecule used as the template. If the starting material is total cell DNA then the banding pattern represents the organization of the cells genome. Differences between the genomes of two organisms can be measured with RAPD. Two closely related organisms would be expected to yield more similar banding patterns than two organisms that are distant in evolutionary terms [24]. Moreover, this technique requires only small piece of animal tissue or blood, as the extracted DNA can be amplified million times using PCR. Basic protocol: EXTRACTION OF HIGHLY PURE DNA ADDITION OF SINGLE ARBITARY PRIMER POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) SEPARATION OF FRAGMENTS BY GEL ELECTROPHORESIS VISUALIZATION OF RAPD-PCR FRAGMENTS AFTER EtBr STAINING UNDER UV DETERMINATION OF FRAGMENT SIZE This technique has mainly gained attraction as there is no requirement for DNA probes or sequence information for primer designing. There are also no blotting or hybridizing steps. This technique only requires the purchase of a thermo cycling machine and agarose gel apparatus and relevant chemicals, which are available as commercial kits and also it is a quick and simple technique. It is important to note that RAPD technique requires maintaining strictly consistent reaction conditions in order to achieve reproducible profiles [25]. The RAPD markers have been used for detecting genomic variations within and between varieties of sweet potato. A total of 160 primers were tested and eight showed consistent amplified band patterns among the plants with variations within and between varieties [26] of sweet potato. Restriction fragment length polymorphism All organisms are genotypically different because they have had numerous differences in their genomic DNA. This difference results in a restriction fragment length polymorphism. Here the chromosomal DNA is first cleaved by restriction enzymes creating fragments and then these fragments are separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. After it southern hybridization analysis is carried out using probe that spans the region of interest. The probe hybridizes to the relevant region, lighting up the appropriate restriction fragments on the resulting autoradiograph. If an RFLP is present then it will be clearly visible on the autoradiograph. Thus RFLP is used as a major tool to identify the genetic diversity within and between species [27]. Basic Protocol CHROMOSOMAL DNA Cleave with Restriction enzymes DNA FRAGMENTS SEPARATE FRAGMENTS BY AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS DENATURE DNA AND TRANSFER TO NITROCELLULOSE Radiolabelled DNAprobe INCUBATE WITH PROBE EXPOSE X-RAY FILM TO PAPER Amplified fragment length polymorphism AFLP analysis is able to detect high levels of polymorphism and has high repeatability and speed of analysis. AFLP technique as being based on the detection of restriction fragments by PCR amplification and argued that Ê ¹the reliability of the RFLP technique is combined with the power of the PCR techniqueÊ ¹. Firstly extraction of highly purified DNA then restriction endonuclease digestion of DNA followed by ligation of adapters. After this amplification of these fragments is done by two primers, and then gel electrophoresis and analysis of fragments by automated sequencing machines. The advantage of this technique is that it is applicable to all species and unlike RAPD; this technique is highly reproducible as it combines restriction digestion and PCR. However, AFLP requires more DNA (300-1000 ng per reaction) and is more technically demanding than RAPD [4].AFLP markers in surveys of plant diversity are discussed in a review published by Mba and Tohme [28]. Recently, Jatropha curcas [29] and Rhodiola rosea [30] have been characterized by AFLP in germplasm collection. The wild populations of Agave angustifolia in the desert was studied by Teyer et al. [31] using AFLP to measure the genetic variability within and between natural populations. AFLP markers have been extensively used for phylogenetic analysis and determining the genetic diversity for conservation of endangered plant species [32-36]. ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Basic protocol: DIGESTION WITH ONE OR MORE RESTRICTION ENZYMES LIGATION OF RESTRICTION HALF-SITE SPECIFIC ADAPTORS TO ALL RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS AMPLIFICATION OF THESE FRAGMENTS WITH TWO PCR PRIMERS THAT HAVE CORRESPONDING ADAPTORS AND RESTRICTION SPECIFIC SEQUENCES ELECTROPHORETIC SEPARATION OF AMPLICONS ON A GEL MATRIX MICROSATELLITES Microsatellites, are alternatively known as simple sequence repeats (SSRs), short tandem repeats (STRs) or simple sequence length polymorphisms (SSLPs). These are tandem repeats of sequence units generally less than 5 bp in length [37].One common example of a microsatellite is a (CA)n repeat, where n is variable between alleles. These markers often present high levels of interâ‚ ¬Ã‚  and intraâ‚ ¬Ã‚ specific polymorphism, particularly when tandem repeats number ten or greater. CA nucleotide repeats are very frequent in human and other genomes, and present every few thousand base pairs. Interâ‚ ¬Ã‚ SSRs are a variant of the RAPD technique, although the higher annealing temperatures probably mean that they are more rigorous than RAPDs. The microsatellite protocol is simple, once primers for SSRs have been designed. The first stage is a PCR, depending upon the method of detection one of the primers is fluorescently or radioactively labeled. The PCR products are separated on high resolution polyacrylamide gels, and the products detected with a fluorescence detector (e.g. automated sequencer) or an Xâ‚ ¬Ã‚ ray film. The investigator can determine the size of the PCR product and thus how many times the short nucleotide was repeated for each allele. Microsatellites developed for particular species can often be applied to closely related species, but the percentage of loci that successfully amplify may decrease with increasing genetic distance [38]. Microsatellite technique has recently been used to establish conservation strategy of endangered plants like Calystegia soldanella [39], Tricyrtis ishiiana [40] and Galium catalinense subspecies acrispum [41]. ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Basic protocol: SEQUENCING DESIGNING OF PRIMERS FOR REGIONS FLANKING MICROSATELLITES ELECTROPHORETIC SEPRATION OF AMPLICONS ONA GEL MATRIX ISOLATION OF GENOMIC DNA Conclusion Molecular characterization can play a role in uncovering the history, and estimating the diversity, distinctiveness and population structure. Awareness of the level of genetic diversity and the proper management of genetic resources are important issues in modern scenario. New markers deriving from DNA technologies are valuable tools to study genetic variability for conservation purposes. In the near future, the advent of genomics will give an impressive tool for genetic resources evaluation.

Troops should NOT be Withdrawn from Iraq :: War Military

Iraq is not stable enough to risk the United States withdrawing their troops, security is too weak and it will show in the near future. It is evident that Iraq cannot hold a steady government that can support the people and maintain a state of armistice throughout these hard times that the country is going through. This statement is clear seeing that there have been about one hundred and sixty three insurgent attacks daily since May of 2007. The United States is currently controlling the country due to Iraq housing terrorist groups that withhold weapons of mass destruction. Like Al Qaeda for example, their leader, Osama Bin Laden has been on the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s â€Å"Most Wanted† list since the year of 2003. Ever since March 19th of 2003 many people have died because of this evil, ruthless man. That is why the United States Defense Department has kept our troops stable in Iraq to prevent some outrageous outbreak of violence. David Patraeus is a General in the United States Army and has written several reports on the war in Iraq and the progress the United States has made. He states that are still enormous difficulties that Iraq has to deal with. A lot of that may come from the many terror groups that inhabit the country. General Patraeus also says, â€Å"the addition of troops will enable the growth of Iraqi security†. (Patraeus 12) He, and many of the other brave men serving in the military completely understand that they have made substantial progress but know for a fact that the situation is still fragile and very reversible. Why would we pull our troops out of something that could be reversed? Would that not be a waste of taxpayer time and money? The General was actually asked why the troops are still in the country, he replied that the only way to secure the population of Iraq is by living with them. The last thing he noted is that he noticed that as force levels grew, the security s ituation improved. The better the security, the more likeliness that the soldiers can come home sooner. Troops should NOT be Withdrawn from Iraq :: War Military Iraq is not stable enough to risk the United States withdrawing their troops, security is too weak and it will show in the near future. It is evident that Iraq cannot hold a steady government that can support the people and maintain a state of armistice throughout these hard times that the country is going through. This statement is clear seeing that there have been about one hundred and sixty three insurgent attacks daily since May of 2007. The United States is currently controlling the country due to Iraq housing terrorist groups that withhold weapons of mass destruction. Like Al Qaeda for example, their leader, Osama Bin Laden has been on the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s â€Å"Most Wanted† list since the year of 2003. Ever since March 19th of 2003 many people have died because of this evil, ruthless man. That is why the United States Defense Department has kept our troops stable in Iraq to prevent some outrageous outbreak of violence. David Patraeus is a General in the United States Army and has written several reports on the war in Iraq and the progress the United States has made. He states that are still enormous difficulties that Iraq has to deal with. A lot of that may come from the many terror groups that inhabit the country. General Patraeus also says, â€Å"the addition of troops will enable the growth of Iraqi security†. (Patraeus 12) He, and many of the other brave men serving in the military completely understand that they have made substantial progress but know for a fact that the situation is still fragile and very reversible. Why would we pull our troops out of something that could be reversed? Would that not be a waste of taxpayer time and money? The General was actually asked why the troops are still in the country, he replied that the only way to secure the population of Iraq is by living with them. The last thing he noted is that he noticed that as force levels grew, the security s ituation improved. The better the security, the more likeliness that the soldiers can come home sooner.

Prisoner – Creative Writing

At least the sun's shining on this old decrepit prison. I can't understand why they've put me in this remote room, alone. I've just arrived. From the 1st of December until my last breath, you would expect to be greeted with open arms, wouldn't you? It's not like she didn't deserve it†¦ Meeting our new friends will be as amusing as reading – I can't think of anything worse. I'd rather listen to her baby wail, scream and shriek again. I sometimes wonder what happened to that baby, watching its mum suffer. Time is valuable, so I won't waste it with those ‘freaks', they're all the same – worthless vermin. Well they'll see, I have got it all planned out. Dear Jason, It's hell here. I feel like Satan's minion, sweeping, scrubbing, and sweating in this ‘hell-hole'. An insignificant ant challenging the irrefutable Mount Everest – each step is an anxious challenge; as for every single stride I make, I end up stumbling back. Pointless. There is a burden of anxiety and mental suffering depicted in the face of every man, as we are all pampered like peasants; especially Little Bill, he can't defend himself so everyone takes advantage. I've just been placed with Derrick my new cellmate, the old fool's fifty, twice my age; his senseless stories of driving his own crane in ‘the good old days' shuttles you towards insanity – without mentioning his nauseating scar which runs the length of his face; my stomach convulses when I gaze upon it. Sneering when he answers ‘How did that happen?'- He fell down flight of stairs; he must think I'm mad to believe him. That's the other problem, I can't trust anyone – I will need to eventually though. ‘Bro', when you next visit Mum's grave can you leave a bunch of roses from me; she always cherished the aroma they produced: even though I still hate them. Do you know she's the only thing that's keeping me going? If only she hadn't taken that job as ‘her' assistant none of this would have happened. Mum didn't deserve so much pressure, she was only the ‘messenger' doing as she were told, without a wink of sleep in over two weeks a car accident was inevitable. But I have no remorse for what I did to ‘June', revenge is sweet. Jake I am gazing through the confined window; the icy steel bars obstruct my route from death. The frenzied frost tearing at my tender hands. I'll be out there soon, we will be free, I can smell it. Old, dilapidated and weathered; these bricks can't withhold us. From slavering away in the kitchen at a Kings pace a few helpful utensils have been gathered; a carving knife, spoon and fork. These can be stored inside the T.V; no one would bother looking there. ‘Derrick? Where are you, idiot, get here. You've worked in the demolishing business for long enough; tell me, can we burst through now?' ‘Too right son, too right.' ‘Luckily this fork and spoon has lasted from wear, but it looks the knife won't be needed ‘aye Del'.' ‘It's getting late my boy, move your rock of a bed back to its normal spot. The incessant stomping of the pigs will soon pass our cell. We must wait until dusk.' The moon's beams of lurid light echoed through the prison. A steely smell of anxiety overhauled the sound of the snoring from the convicts. This was nearly it. Weeks of planning boiled down to this. Thankfully, I'm fearless, this time I will get away, we will be free ‘Jimmy.' We could go, now? Just leave Derrick; he's someone we can't trust anyway. We should desert him; he would soak up all the blame. Droplets of blood were dripping on the floor; my hands sore and weeping from pounding powerful punches like a boxer at the gapping hole in the corner of the cell – I only had to make it half a foot wider whilst being quiet as possible. A seed of adrenaline sprouted inside me, the round circle in the wall had subsided. It was time. Psyching myself was easy, I knew what had to be done. ‘ESCAPEE, AN ESCAPEY!' I turn around horrified, standing still paralyzed. Derrick? ‘No it can't be, y-you set me up?!' Glaring him straight in the face – I had no choice†¦

How does Virgil deviate from Homer in the underworld, and why Essay

When comparing â€Å"The Aeneid† to â€Å"The Odyssey†, it is impossible not to notice the similarity between Homer and Virgil’s poems. Both heroes leave Troy, granted one barely escapes and the other leaves victoriously, and both in one sense or the other are trying to reach their home, whether it is the old or future home. The adventures of the two heroes are incredibly similar on a number of accounts with the trip to the underworld being most intriguing. First of all it is important to understand that Homer and Virgil wrote their poems for different reasons; Homer’s â€Å"The Odyssey† was written for entertainment purposes, while Virgil’s â€Å"The Aeneid† was written in order to subtly praise Augustus and promote the glory of Rome. This could in fact explain most of Virgil’s deviations from â€Å"The Odyssey†. The two poems present us with very clear similarities; both heroes have to travel to the underworld in order to continue their voyage; both meet friends, foes and most importantly a parent. Besides that, both Odysseus and Aeneas are guided by a god without whom they may have not been able to enter the underworld, and would definitely would not have been able to leave it. Even with these similarities however, the tasks of Odysseus and Aeneas are entirely different and the underworlds which they become acquainted with are also not explained in the same manner. Therefore, while the basic idea of the underworld seems to be the same for both poets, their description of Odysseus’s and Aeneas’s trips make these passages entirely different. One of the most obvious comparisons of the poems is Aeneas and Odysseus’s meeting with old friends and family; both for example meet one of their parents. In this case, Odysseus may be sympathized with more for he did not know of his mother’s death and in the underworld had learnt that she died because of his absence and her longing for her son. Aeneas on the other hand does know that his father is no longer alive, but that does not stop both characters from crying when seeing their parent and both trying to embrace him/her three times. The gender of the dead parent also makes a point; Aeneas’s dad could be referring to the all-knowing Caesar and the male dominance in Rome. Odysseus’s mother on the other hand, once again for the purpose of entertainment, could be representing Penelope, Ithaka and all the love Odysseus has for his home. Besides the meeting with their parent, both heroes are undermined through their treatment of the spirits. For example, both are captains and both have managed to miscount their sailors not noticing that one of their men has died. This is crucial for Aeneas’s story for if he is the founder of Rome and cannot keep count of a handful of men, how is he to establish and control a new city? Besides that, another interesting point is Odysseus’s meeting with Ajax and Aeneas’s meeting with Dido. Here, the similarities are bewildering; both of these characters die because of the heroes, both of them die by thrusting a knife into their chest and both of them are still angry with Odysseus and Aeneas. As interesting as their actions may be, Odysseus and Aeneas both blame their actions on the gods, Aeneas more than Odysseus. Once again this undermines the founder of Rome for he cannot take responsibility for what he has caused and expects the gods not only to help him get to Italy, but also to be able to blame his mistakes on them. Even the reason for Odysseus and Aeneas’s trip to the underworld creates confusion as to what is similar and what is not. For example, they both enter the underworld because they need to in order to complete the voyages but also because they have been told to do so by the gods. Odysseus enters Hades in order to find the prophet Teiresias to guide him back to Ithaka, even though by going to this meeting he is risking his life, and Aeneas enters the underworld to see his father who tells him of the future of the city he is about to found. One of the main contrasts of the two poems is that Odysseus focuses more on the past of his life; he is trying to get home where he was before, in the underworld he sees his fallen friends from Troy, he is trying to get back to his wife and son etc. Aeneas on the other hand is much more focused on the future; he is also trying to get home, but that home does not exist yet, besides that, while seeing his old friends he also finds out about the future of his generations and yet even more about the city he is on his way to establish. This could bring us to the point of Homer’s vs. Virgil’s reasons for writing their poems; as mentioned earlier,  Homer wrote his poem for entertainment purposes. This explains why the majority of book eleven is made up of Odysseus meeting his old friends and great warriors of the war; through telling their stories, Homer entertained the readers and the audience by letting them imagine how the heroes act after their death (what still matters to them, which quarrels have not been forgotten etc.). Virgil on the other hand skips most of the greetings of Aeneas with old friends and focuses instead on the meeting with his father. There, while including sentimentality, the main point of the meeting is for Aeneas and the readers to find out about where the rulers of Rome came from. Aeneas in the underworld gets to see, although not speak to, his future son, the future Caesars and learns all about the glory of the future empire. Even the description of the underworld itself may fall under the same entertainment vs. glorifying Rome purposes. Homer’s Hades is filled with darkness, screams and blood; even in order to get the spirits to talk to him, Odysseus has to give them fresh blood to drink (â€Å"whom you allow to enter where the blood is will speak to you† 164). That image going alongside the terrifying dark description of Hades shows how brave Odysseus was; despite the fact that he does confess â€Å"†¦I grew sick with fear.† (46). This is an entirely different perception of the underworld Aeneas enters: even though on the outside it is surrounded by the souls of the unburied who incite fear, once Aeneas has gone through the darkness and the souls he meets his father in a â€Å"†¦places of delight†¦ green park land† (855). This is an interesting description because it suggests to the readers that once you pass through the darkness and hardship, you are rewarded with happiness and freedom. Through this Virgil could be describing not only everything Rome’s founder had to do for the city, but also glorifying Augustus by describing that none of the benefits of Rome have come easily. Even small remarks such as â€Å"Some train on grassy rings, others compete In field games† (860) could be referenced back to the how strong and hardworking the Roman nation is. While glorifying Rome and Augustus, Virgil also includes some subtle criticisms or questions about the founder of Rome. First of all, while Odysseus was able to enter Hades alone, Aeneas had to be shown the way by the prophetess and servant of Apollo: when following her heels Aeneas walked with determination and pride, but without her fear overwhelmed him. This could suggest that Aeneas is not in fact as great and fearless as he may seem. Besides that, one of Aeneas’s main tasks was to retrieve the golden bough (would the whole notion that it was golden signify that the Romans are now a â€Å"golden† nation?) which only those who are destined by fate can take down easily. Aeneas however could not even find the bough himself, his immortal mother had to send doves to lead the way. Afterwards, when his mother did show him where the golden bough was, â€Å"†¦though it clung, [he] greedily broke it off,† (298). The fact that the bough clung could be interpreted in two ways; for those who were reading it to see the glory of Rome, it could suggest the battle between Juno and Venus with Aeneas caught in between them, and the fact that he does take it down in the end suggests that the gods are in his favor after all. For those who are open to the criticism of Rome, it could be interpreted as the fact that Aeneas was not entirely brought their by fate, that maybe he specifically did not have to be the founder of Rome, but Venus made it happen. Furthermore, the word â€Å"greedily† is interesting to have been used in this context: when reading about a hero who has established one of the greatest empires one would not expect him to be greedy, rather fearless but calm and level headed; Aeneas greedily ripping off the bough does not create and image of a hero. In conclusion, Virgil’s â€Å"The Aeneid† greatly resembles Homer’s â€Å"The Odyssey† and this is seen clearly through the poets’ descriptions of the underworld. However, while â€Å"The Odyssey† was created for entertainment purposes, Virgil has managed to subtly praise and criticize his city, its ruler and its founder making his poem, and book six specifically, full of surprises.

Concept Development: Florence Nightingale -Its Con

CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT: Florence Nightingale – Influence on Nursing Theory 1. AIM: This assignment gives an abridged account of Florence Nightingale’s life, her education, aspirations and career. It also discusses the development of nursing theory in general, and Florence Nightingale’s influence in later nursing theorists’ work. Florence Nightingale’s philosophy regarding the environment was fundamental to her concept of nursing and health, which was demonstrated through her work on sanitary reform and hospital construction. 2. BACKGROUND: Florence Nightingale was born in 1820 to well-educated, affluent British parents. Her youthful upbringing brought her into aristocratic society, where she made life-long distinguished friends and acquaintances. These would prove pivotal in her work as the founder of modern nursing. Schooled by her father in mathematics, languages, religion and philosophy (which were put to good use in forming her theories), the young Nightingale began her nursing training in Germany. After returning to England, she became Superintendent of the Hospital for Invalid Gentlewomen 1. During the 1840’s, sanitary reform in the community became a big political issue, which Florence Nightingale zealously embraced. She utilised plans for eliminating sanitation problems on the army wards during her time in the Crimean War. Although medical care in the army was higher than in the community, conditions were still appalling with blocked latrines, overflowing cesspools and contaminated drinking water. The latter playing an important part in epidemic outbreaks of cholera. 1,2. The soldiers named her as ‘The Lady of the Lamp’ when she carried her lantern through the corridors at night. In 1855, Florence Nightingale became very ill with ‘Crimean Fever ‘ and was not expected to survive. This disease is believed by some to be brucellosis melitensis. Her symptoms subsided and she returned to England, after which, she founded nursing schools at St. Thomas Hospital and at King’s College Hospital. Her achievements have included her many writings, such as ‘Notes on Hospitals’ and ‘Notes on the Sanitary State of the Army in India’. Florence Nightingale also compiled statistics and much evidence for the Royal Commission. Hospitals were set up world-wide financed by the Nightingale Fund. Although bed-ridden for much of her later years, she worked prolifically into her eighties, gathering data and expounding her nursing theories. In 1910, Florence Nightingale died at the age of 90 years. . Development of Nursing Theories and Practices Between 1858, when Florence Nightingale first wrote her ideas for the theory and practice of nursing, and the 1950’s, there was little change to the task orientated, authoritarian concept of nursing practice. The nursing theorists may have started to evolve in order to change this viewpoint. Notable protagonists include Henderson, Peplau, Abdellah and Orem. 4 In addition, reactions to the medical paradigm which was well established and developed, may have prompted the change of nursing, from one of traditional symptom orientation to a nursing paradigm in it’s own right. Figures 3. 1 & 3. 2 refer). [pic] Nursing theories have gone through several changes and ideas that were rejected in one stage of development have been accepted in another. There has been a shift from the early rejection of nursing theories, through the positivistic, quantitative research of the sixties to the recent revival of Florence Nightingale’s concept of nursing of health and environment. Nursing research has shifted towards the phenomenological viewpoint (the meaning of experience and perceived reality) illustrated in Figure 3. 3. [pic] Nursing theories prove that nursing is a profession, not simply an occupation. Meleis describes these as being â€Å"a systematic, coherent body of knowledge with boundaries†. There are three types of nursing theories, according to Alligood and Chong Choi. 1 The first is nursing philosophy, in which the meaning of nursing is realised through analysis, reasoning and logical argument. Exponents of this type of work were early theorists. Florence Nightingale’s work is a philosophical one. The second or ‘grand theorist’ type gives a conceptual framework in which one can view the world and take into account it’s aspects. (J. Fawcett 1989)1: 6 . Orem and Neuman are examples of this type. The third type are middle range theories, which are derivatives from other works such as grand theories, philosophy of nursing theories or perhaps from other, related theories. 1 4. Florence Nightingale’s Influence on Nursing Development and Practice Florence Nightingale was the first nursing theorist. She believed her life in nursing to be a calling from God, her chief mission being to improve the environment in which people lived and in which people were cared for. Although an innovator, she was also a product of her time as sanitary reform in the community became a big issue with the educated classes. Her other philosophies influenced nursing theory and practice. These were: * Nursing as a profession distinct from Medicine. Gathering of statistical data for applied research The establishment of recognised system of nurse training Definition of Health Dichotomy of nurse / patient role. The reparative process of disease 4. 1 Environment Florence Nightingale placed great emphasis on the physical aspects of the care setting. These are namely; clean air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness and sunlight, 7 which are largely taken for granted in our modern hospitals. She believed these would eradicate the main source of illness, although, Miss Nightingale rejected the theory of bacterial infection on the grounds that she had no empirical evidence to support it. Florence Nightingale believed that building construction, in particular, hospital building, should pay particular attention to sanitation and ventilation. This together with the correct diet would eliminate much current sickness. Her writings on this subject revolutionised hospital construction. 10. In her Notes on Nursing, she admonished nurses who noisily tripped over fire-irons, thus breaching safety standards. Virginia Henderson wrote of Florence Nightingale’s influence on her own work regarding the environment, when she said, â€Å"Like Miss Nightingale, I have shared an interest in seeing the environment made safer for people. She put more emphasis on fresh air than I, of course, did. I had more opportunity to learn how to control infection than she did. † 8. Miss Hende rson further enlarged on Florence Nightingale’s theory to say that nurses should recommend the construction of buildings, purchase of equipment and maintenance in order to minimise chances of injury. 1 Kathryn Barnard, speaking in 1966, said that in order for the nurse to assist the patient in promoting and maintaining his / her independence, a change in the patient’s environment may be necessary. 1 Martha E. Rogers (1970) and Betty Neuman (1995) echoed Florence Nightingale’s belief that the provision of an environment which was conducive to healing, such as cleanliness, fresh air and calm, were prerequisites for recovery from illness. Nursing theorists widened the concept to include people’s responses to their immediate and broader environment. 9 Rogers holds that the description of person and environment ‘energy fields’ are inseparable. Dorothea Orem’s ‘Universal self-care requisites’ (1980) lists the maintenance of air, water, food, rest and solitude, as being required by all human beings and adding to these; social interaction, elimination, activity, social interaction, prevention of hazards and promotion of human functioning. 4. 2 The Profession of Nursing and Health. The idea that there would be a professional body of exclusively female nurses (Miss Nightingale believed women were natural nurturers) was revolutionary in the last century. The exception was in psychiatric nursing, where men’s’ physical strength was valued. This view is largely discounted today, of course. She was also passionate about the uniqueness of nursing, existing alongside but not incorporated into, other related disciplines, such as medicine. Adherence to signs, symptoms, surgery, medication and disease prevailed in this era of health care. 5 She was suspicious of ‘new’ scientific thinking, wh ich would turn nurses into ‘medical women’. 10 The training of young, more educated nurses in the new progressive schools like St. Thomas Hospital, included Florence Nightingale’s own concept of health: hygiene, environment and care. Her belief was that health was a state of wellness, desired by the patient and gained by using all power available, to the fullest extent. 1:10 Miss Nightingale combined both health education with sick nursing in her teachings, a practice which is very much in evidence today. Hildegard Peplau, followed Florence Nightingale, in 1952, and pioneered a knowledge-based nursing practice, which included education and research; distinguishing it from medicine-based health care. 1, 11 In 1987, Rosemarie Rizzo Parse echoed the need for nursing to move away from the medical model in order to evolve. 4. 3 Concept of Nursing and Statistical Data Gathering In 1970, Martha Rogers took Miss Nightingale’s concept of nursing and redefined it as a constant human interaction with the environment. 5 She lauded Miss Nightingale’s ability to place the person â€Å"within the framework of the natural world†, by her vision of health and by supporting this with statistical data. 1 Rosemarie Rizzo Parse was greatly influenced by Martha Rogers. She believed that, since Florence Nightingale’s time, nursing owed it’s existence to Man and Health. 1 4. 4 Nurse/ Patient Role and her Model of Nursing Florence Nightingale believed disease to go through a reparative process Her model of nursing reflected her belief that nature would cure the patient by the actions of the nurse’s control on the environment, 12 the patient’s role was a passive one, with little or no say in the way in which he or she was treated by the health care team. Few would argue that nursing theories has taken a more holistic approach than was the case in Florence Nightingale’s time. A legacy of the Nightingale School is the military terminology used by Miss Nightingale from her time spent in army nursing. Phrases such as; ‘on duty’, ‘off duty’ and ‘sick leave’ are still in use today. 10 5. Conclusion Florence Nightingale saw nurses as women who were not only professionals in their own right, (a revolutionary concept for Victorian England, when most women were subservient to male domination) but were to be instrumental in bringing about changes in order to improve the environment in it’s broadest sense. By this token, she was also the first health educator. Miss Nightingale presented her own empirical evidence i. e. based on her own experiences and observations, as established facts. She was a believer in research. Her gathering of statistical data was used to give credence to her hypotheses on her epidemiological studies. She laid the foundations for a recognised system of nurse training, not only in this country, but abroad. However, those nurse educators, who followed in Florence Nightingale’s footsteps in teaching young (and from an increasingly higher social class) women in the art of nursing, failed to differentiate between the goals and focus of nursing and of medicine. The medical model tended to neglect the patient as a human being. Furthermore, nursing creativity would be stifled (at least in the U. K. ) under a regimented, task-orientated regime until the early 1950’s until the emergence of new nursing theorists, such as Peplau (1952), Henderson (1955) and Orem (1958). Some of Florence Nightingale’s practices and beliefs have been largely discontinued or discounted today, such as the pathology of dirt and dampness, her disregard to the germ theory, and the fact that the patient was non-participative of his/her method of care. This lack of holism was perhaps in keeping with her time. 1. Her vision of nurses as innovators for social health reform, continues to inspire us today. – End of Assignment – REFERENCES: | | | |1. | Marrinner-Tomey, A. (1994). Nursing Theorists and their Work. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby. | |2 |Dingwall, R. , Rafferty, A. M. , Webster, C. (1988). An Introduction to the Social History of Nursing. London: Routledge | |3 |Baly, M. E. (Nov. 13. 1996). Different history for Nightingale illness, Letters. Nursing Standard, 8 (11) 10. Harrow, Middx. , R. C. | | |N. Publishing Company. | |4 |Castledine, G. (1994). A definition of nursing based on nurturing, 3 (3): 134. British Journal of Nursing. | |5 |Meleis, A. I. (1985). Theoretical Nursing: Development and Progress. Pennsylvania: J. B. Lippincott Company. | |6 |Fawcett, J. (1989). Analysis and evaluation of conceptual models of nursing. In A. Marrinner-Tomey (Ed). Nursing Theorists and their| | |Work. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby. | |7 |Nightingale, F. (1992). Notes on Nursing. London: Scutari Press. | |8 |Smith, J. P. (1989). Virginia Henderson: The First 90 years. London: Scutari Press. | |9 |Pearson, A. , Vaughan, B. , Fitzgerald, A. (1991). Nursing Models for Practice. London: Heiman | |10 |Baly, M. E. (1986). Florence Nightingale and the Nursing Legacy. New York: Croon Helm. | |11 |Fitzpatrick, J. and Whall. A. (1983) Conceptual Models of Nursing. Prentice Hall Publishing Co. | |12 |Kershaw, B. and Salvage, J. (1994) Models for Nursing. Great Britain. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. |

Psychopharmacology Paper Essay

The study of psychopharmacology delves into the alterations in human thinking, mood, and behavior as result of inducing drugs – how psychoactive substances are employed by people to change their moods.   The field involves research and study into the effects of numerous kinds and types of substances, and how it would impact on the psychological behavior of the individual.    Not merely elaborating the ramifications of the use of recreational drugs, the study can be a particularly helpful mechanism in determining how certain drugs can alleviate psychological diseases, like mental disorder.   The substances’ psychoactive relation with brain response and the bio-chemical implications are part and parcel of psychopharmacology.   The psychoactive drugs can be obtained from a wide range of sources, natural and synthetic. These substances interact with the nervous system, and would elicit behavioral and psychological alterations in an individual.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The positive aspects of psychopharmacology are mainly its positive clinical effects that allow people with mental disabilities to lead lives that are normal – through the help of drugs like anti-depressants and anti-anxiety.   Also, it allows psychologists to investigate a wide range of behavior-altering substances that can be utilized for clinical purposes that can help countless patients.   Since psychopharmacology would extensively analyze drug effects, then it can suitably identify which substances can be utilized for public use and cure mental and psychological patients. It is an important aspect of mental health that allows for research and development of the field.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conversely, the study has also several identified drawbacks, like the ramifications of drug testing which ultimately would involve humans.   Human testing can have unforeseen implications which can prove to be detrimental to the mental health of the test subject.   A certain drug to be able to be consumed in the market has to go through a tedious process of research and approval by the government, to ensure public safety of the drug use. References Brain, Christine. (2002). Advanced Psychology: Applications, Issues and Perspectives. United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes. Meyer, Jerrold, and Linda Quenzer. (2004). Psychopharmacology: Drugs, The Brain and Behavior. United States: Sinauer Associates. Nemeroff, Charles, and Alan Schatzberg. Eds. (2006). Essentials of Clinical Psychopharmacology. United States: American Psychiatric Publishing.